Working with Engines and Connections — SQLAlchemy 0.7.1 Documentation

# SQLAlchemy 0.7.1 Documentation

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Version: 0.7.1 Last Updated: 06/05/2011 13:13:59

# Working with Engines and Connections

This section details direct usage of the `Engine`, `Connection`, and related objects. Its important to note that when using the SQLAlchemy ORM, these objects are not generally accessed; instead, the `Session` object is used as the interface to the database. However, for applications that are built around direct usage of textual SQL statements and/or SQL expression constructs without involvement by the ORM’s higher level management services, the `Engine` and `Connection` are king (and queen?) - read on.

## Basic Usage

Recall from Engine Configuration that an `Engine` is created via the `create_engine()` call:

    engine = create_engine('mysql://scott:tiger@localhost/test')

The typical usage of `create_engine()` is once per particular database URL, held globally for the lifetime of a single application process. A single `Engine` manages many individual DBAPI connections on behalf of the process and is intended to be called upon in a concurrent fashion. The `Engine` is not synonymous to the DBAPI `connect` function, which represents just one connection resource - the `Engine` is most efficient when created just once at the module level of an application, not per-object or per-function call.

For a multiple-process application that uses the `os.fork` system call, or for example the Python `multiprocessing` module, it’s usually required that a separate `Engine` be used for each child process. This is because the `Engine` maintains a reference to a connection pool that ultimately references DBAPI connections - these tend to not be portable across process boundaries. An `Engine` that is configured not to use pooling (which is achieved via the usage of `NullPool`) does not have this requirement.

The engine can be used directly to issue SQL to the database. The most generic way is first procure a connection resource, which you get via the `connect` method:

    connection = engine.connect()
    result = connection.execute("select username from users")
    for row in result:
        print "username:", row['username']
    connection.close()

The connection is an instance of `Connection`, which is a proxy object for an actual DBAPI connection. The DBAPI connection is retrieved from the connection pool at the point at which `Connection` is created.

The returned result is an instance of `ResultProxy`, which references a DBAPI cursor and provides a largely compatible interface with that of the DBAPI cursor. The DBAPI cursor will be closed by the `ResultProxy` when all of its result rows (if any) are exhausted. A `ResultProxy` that returns no rows, such as that of an UPDATE statement (without any returned rows), releases cursor resources immediately upon construction.

When the `close()` method is called, the referenced DBAPI connection is returned to the connection pool. From the perspective of the database itself, nothing is actually “closed”, assuming pooling is in use. The pooling mechanism issues a `rollback()` call on the DBAPI connection so that any transactional state or locks are removed, and the connection is ready for its next usage.

The above procedure can be performed in a shorthand way by using the `execute()` method of `Engine` itself:

    result = engine.execute("select username from users")
    for row in result:
        print "username:", row['username']

Where above, the `execute()` method acquires a new `Connection` on its own, executes the statement with that object, and returns the `ResultProxy`. In this case, the `ResultProxy` contains a special flag known as `close_with_result`, which indicates that when its underlying DBAPI cursor is closed, the `Connection` object itself is also closed, which again returns the DBAPI connection to the connection pool, releasing transactional resources.

If the `ResultProxy` potentially has rows remaining, it can be instructed to close out its resources explicitly:

    result.close()

If the `ResultProxy` has pending rows remaining and is dereferenced by the application without being closed, Python garbage collection will ultimately close out the cursor as well as trigger a return of the pooled DBAPI connection resource to the pool (SQLAlchemy achieves this by the usage of weakref callbacks - never the `__del__` method) - however it’s never a good idea to rely upon Python garbage collection to manage resources.

Our example above illustrated the execution of a textual SQL string. The `execute()` method can of course accommodate more than that, including the variety of SQL expression constructs described in SQL Expression Language Tutorial.

## Using Transactions

Note

This section describes how to use transactions when working directly with `Engine` and `Connection` objects. When using the SQLAlchemy ORM, the public API for transaction control is via the `Session` object, which makes usage of the `Transaction` object internally. See Managing Transactions for further information.

The `Connection` object provides a `begin()` method which returns a `Transaction` object. This object is usually used within a try/except clause so that it is guaranteed to `rollback()` or `commit()`:

    trans = connection.begin()
    try:
        r1 = connection.execute(table1.select())
        connection.execute(table1.insert(), col1=7, col2='this is some data')
        trans.commit()
    except:
        trans.rollback()
        raise

### Nesting of Transaction Blocks

The `Transaction` object also handles “nested” behavior by keeping track of the outermost begin/commit pair. In this example, two functions both issue a transaction on a Connection, but only the outermost Transaction object actually takes effect when it is committed.

    # method_a starts a transaction and calls method_b
    def method_a(connection):
        trans = connection.begin() # open a transaction
        try:
            method_b(connection)
            trans.commit()  # transaction is committed here
        except:
            trans.rollback() # this rolls back the transaction unconditionally
            raise

    # method_b also starts a transaction
    def method_b(connection):
        trans = connection.begin() # open a transaction - this runs in the context of method_a's transaction
        try:
            connection.execute("insert into mytable values ('bat', 'lala')")
            connection.execute(mytable.insert(), col1='bat', col2='lala')
            trans.commit()  # transaction is not committed yet
        except:
            trans.rollback() # this rolls back the transaction unconditionally
            raise

    # open a Connection and call method_a
    conn = engine.connect()
    method_a(conn)
    conn.close()

Above, `method_a` is called first, which calls `connection.begin()`. Then it calls `method_b`. When `method_b` calls `connection.begin()`, it just increments a counter that is decremented when it calls `commit()`. If either `method_a` or `method_b` calls `rollback()`, the whole transaction is rolled back. The transaction is not committed until `method_a` calls the `commit()` method. This “nesting” behavior allows the creation of functions which “guarantee” that a transaction will be used if one was not already available, but will automatically participate in an enclosing transaction if one exists.

## Understanding Autocommit

The previous transaction example illustrates how to use `Transaction` so that several executions can take part in the same transaction. What happens when we issue an INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE call without using `Transaction`? The answer is autocommit. While many DBAPI implementation provide various special “non-transactional” modes, the current SQLAlchemy behavior is such that it implements its own “autocommit” which works completely consistently across all backends. This is achieved by detecting statements which represent data-changing operations, i.e. INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, as well as data definition language (DDL) statements such as CREATE TABLE, ALTER TABLE, and then issuing a COMMIT automatically if no transaction is in progress. The detection is based on compiled statement attributes, or in the case of a text-only statement via regular expressions:

    conn = engine.connect()
    conn.execute("INSERT INTO users VALUES (1, 'john')")  # autocommits

Full control of the “autocommit” behavior is available using the generative `Connection.execution_options()` method provided on `Connection`, `Engine`, `Executable`, using the “autocommit” flag which will turn on or off the autocommit for the selected scope. For example, a `text()` construct representing a stored procedure that commits might use it so that a SELECT statement will issue a COMMIT:

    engine.execute(text("SELECT my_mutating_procedure()").execution_options(autocommit=True))

## Connectionless Execution, Implicit Execution

Recall from the first section we mentioned executing with and without explicit usage of `Connection`. “Connectionless” execution refers to the usage of the `execute()` method on an object which is not a `Connection`. This was illustrated using the `execute()` method of `Engine`.

In addition to “connectionless” execution, it is also possible to use the `execute()` method of any `Executable` construct, which is a marker for SQL expression objects that support execution. The SQL expression object itself references an `Engine` or `Connection` known as the bind, which it uses in order to provide so-called “implicit” execution services.

Given a table as below:

    meta = MetaData()
    users_table = Table('users', meta,
        Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column('name', String(50))
    )

Explicit execution delivers the SQL text or constructed SQL expression to the `execute()` method of `Connection`:

    engine = create_engine('sqlite:///file.db')
    connection = engine.connect()
    result = connection.execute(users_table.select())
    for row in result:
        # ....
    connection.close()

Explicit, connectionless execution delivers the expression to the `execute()` method of `Engine`:

    engine = create_engine('sqlite:///file.db')
    result = engine.execute(users_table.select())
    for row in result:
        # ....
    result.close()

Implicit execution is also connectionless, and calls the `execute()` method on the expression itself, utilizing the fact that either an `Engine` or `Connection` has been bound to the expression object (binding is discussed further in Schema Definition Language):

    engine = create_engine('sqlite:///file.db')
    meta.bind = engine
    result = users_table.select().execute()
    for row in result:
        # ....
    result.close()

In both “connectionless” examples, the `Connection` is created behind the scenes; the `ResultProxy` returned by the `execute()` call references the `Connection` used to issue the SQL statement. When the `ResultProxy` is closed, the underlying `Connection` is closed for us, resulting in the DBAPI connection being returned to the pool with transactional resources removed.

## Using the Threadlocal Execution Strategy

The “threadlocal” engine strategy is an optional feature which can be used by non-ORM applications to associate transactions with the current thread, such that all parts of the application can participate in that transaction implicitly without the need to explicitly reference a `Connection`. “threadlocal” is designed for a very specific pattern of use, and is not appropriate unless this very specfic pattern, described below, is what’s desired. It has no impact on the “thread safety” of SQLAlchemy components or one’s application. It also should not be used when using an ORM `Session` object, as the `Session` itself represents an ongoing transaction and itself handles the job of maintaining connection and transactional resources.

Enabling `threadlocal` is achieved as follows:

    db = create_engine('mysql://localhost/test', strategy='threadlocal')

The above `Engine` will now acquire a `Connection` using connection resources derived from a thread-local variable whenever `Engine.execute()` or `Engine.contextual_connect()` is called. This connection resource is maintained as long as it is referenced, which allows multiple points of an application to share a transaction while using connectionless execution:

    def call_operation1():
        engine.execute("insert into users values (?, ?)", 1, "john")

    def call_operation2():
        users.update(users.c.user_id==5).execute(name='ed')

    db.begin()
    try:
        call_operation1()
        call_operation2()
        db.commit()
    except:
        db.rollback()

Explicit execution can be mixed with connectionless execution by using the `Engine.connect` method to acquire a `Connection` that is not part of the threadlocal scope:

    db.begin()
    conn = db.connect()
    try:
        conn.execute(log_table.insert(), message="Operation started")
        call_operation1()
        call_operation2()
        db.commit()
        conn.execute(log_table.insert(), message="Operation succeeded")
    except:
        db.rollback()
        conn.execute(log_table.insert(), message="Operation failed")
    finally:
        conn.close()

To access the `Connection` that is bound to the threadlocal scope, call `Engine.contextual_connect()`:

    conn = db.contextual_connect()
    call_operation3(conn)
    conn.close()

Calling `close()` on the “contextual” connection does not release its resources until all other usages of that resource are closed as well, including that any ongoing transactions are rolled back or committed.

## Connection / Engine API

class `sqlalchemy.engine.base.` `Connection`(engine, connection=None, close_with_result=False, _branch=False, _execution_options=None)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.engine.base.Connectable`

  Provides high-level functionality for a wrapped DB-API connection.

  Provides execution support for string-based SQL statements as well as `ClauseElement`, `Compiled` and `DefaultGenerator` objects. Provides a `begin()` method to return `Transaction` objects.

  The Connection object is not thread-safe. While a Connection can be shared among threads using properly synchronized access, it is still possible that the underlying DBAPI connection may not support shared access between threads. Check the DBAPI documentation for details.

  The Connection object represents a single dbapi connection checked out from the connection pool. In this state, the connection pool has no affect upon the connection, including its expiration or timeout state. For the connection pool to properly manage connections, connections should be returned to the connection pool (i.e. `connection.close()`) whenever the connection is not in use.

  `__init__`(engine, connection=None, close_with_result=False, _branch=False, _execution_options=None)

    Construct a new Connection.

    The constructor here is not public and is only called only by an `Engine`. See `Engine.connect()` and `Engine.contextual_connect()` methods.

  `begin`()

    Begin a transaction and return a transaction handle.

    The returned object is an instance of `Transaction`.

    Repeated calls to `begin` on the same Connection will create a lightweight, emulated nested transaction. Only the outermost transaction may `commit`. Calls to `commit` on inner transactions are ignored. Any transaction in the hierarchy may `rollback`, however.

    See also `Connection.begin_nested()`, `Connection.begin_twophase()`.

  `begin_nested`()

    Begin a nested transaction and return a transaction handle.

    The returned object is an instance of `NestedTransaction`.

    Nested transactions require SAVEPOINT support in the underlying database. Any transaction in the hierarchy may `commit` and `rollback`, however the outermost transaction still controls the overall `commit` or `rollback` of the transaction of a whole.

    See also `Connection.begin()`, `Connection.begin_twophase()`.

  `begin_twophase`(xid=None)

    Begin a two-phase or XA transaction and return a transaction handle.

    The returned object is an instance of `TwoPhaseTransaction`, which in addition to the methods provided by `Transaction`, also provides a `prepare()` method.

    Parameters: | xid – the two phase transaction id. If not supplied, a random id will be generated.

    See also `Connection.begin()`, `Connection.begin_twophase()`.

  `close`()

    Close this `Connection`.

    This results in a release of the underlying database resources, that is, the DBAPI connection referenced internally. The DBAPI connection is typically restored back to the connection-holding `Pool` referenced by the `Engine` that produced this `Connection`. Any transactional state present on the DBAPI connection is also unconditionally released via the DBAPI connection’s `rollback()` method, regardless of any `Transaction` object that may be outstanding with regards to this `Connection`.

    After `close()` is called, the `Connection` is permanently in a closed state, and will allow no further operations.

  `closed`

    Return True if this connection is closed.

  `connect`()

    Returns self.

    This `Connectable` interface method returns self, allowing Connections to be used interchangably with Engines in most situations that require a bind.

  `connection`

    The underlying DB-API connection managed by this Connection.

  `contextual_connect`(**kwargs)

    Returns self.

    This `Connectable` interface method returns self, allowing Connections to be used interchangably with Engines in most situations that require a bind.

  `create`(entity, **kwargs)

    Emit CREATE statements for the given schema entity.

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use the create() method on the given schema object directly, i.e. `Table.create()`, `Index.create()`, `MetaData.create_all()`

  `detach`()

    Detach the underlying DB-API connection from its connection pool.

    This Connection instance will remain useable. When closed, the DB-API connection will be literally closed and not returned to its pool. The pool will typically lazily create a new connection to replace the detached connection.

    This method can be used to insulate the rest of an application from a modified state on a connection (such as a transaction isolation level or similar). Also see `PoolListener` for a mechanism to modify connection state when connections leave and return to their connection pool.

  `drop`(entity, **kwargs)

    Emit DROP statements for the given schema entity.

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use the drop() method on the given schema object directly, i.e. `Table.drop()`, `Index.drop()`, `MetaData.drop_all()`

  `execute`(object, *multiparams, **params)

    Executes the given construct and returns a `ResultProxy`.

    The construct can be one of:

    - a textual SQL string
    - any `ClauseElement` construct that is also a subclass of `Executable`, such as a `expression.select()` construct
    - a `FunctionElement`, such as that generated by `func`, will be automatically wrapped in a SELECT statement, which is then executed.
    - a `DDLElement` object
    - a `DefaultGenerator` object
    - a `Compiled` object
  `execution_options`(**opt)

    Set non-SQL options for the connection which take effect during execution.

    The method returns a copy of this `Connection` which references the same underlying DBAPI connection, but also defines the given execution options which will take effect for a call to `execute()`. As the new `Connection` references the same underlying resource, it is probably best to ensure that the copies would be discarded immediately, which is implicit if used as in:

        result = connection.execution_options(stream_results=True).\
                            execute(stmt)

    `Connection.execution_options()` accepts all options as those accepted by `Executable.execution_options()`. Additionally, it includes options that are applicable only to `Connection`.

    Parameters: | autocommit – Available on: Connection, statement. When True, a COMMIT will be invoked after execution when executed in ‘autocommit’ mode, i.e. when an explicit transaction is not begun on the connection. Note that DBAPI connections by default are always in a transaction - SQLAlchemy uses rules applied to different kinds of statements to determine if COMMIT will be invoked in order to provide its “autocommit” feature. Typically, all INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE statements as well as CREATE/DROP statements have autocommit behavior enabled; SELECT constructs do not. Use this option when invoking a SELECT or other specific SQL construct where COMMIT is desired (typically when calling stored procedures and such), and an explicit transaction is not in progress. compiled_cache – Available on: Connection. A dictionary where `Compiled` objects will be cached when the `Connection` compiles a clause expression into a `Compiled` object. It is the user’s responsibility to manage the size of this dictionary, which will have keys corresponding to the dialect, clause element, the column names within the VALUES or SET clause of an INSERT or UPDATE, as well as the “batch” mode for an INSERT or UPDATE statement. The format of this dictionary is not guaranteed to stay the same in future releases. Note that the ORM makes use of its own “compiled” caches for some operations, including flush operations. The caching used by the ORM internally supersedes a cache dictionary specified here. isolation_level – Available on: Connection. Set the transaction isolation level for the lifespan of this connection. Valid values include those string values accepted by the `isolation_level` parameter passed to `create_engine()`, and are database specific, including those for SQLite, PostgreSQL - see those dialect’s documentation for further info. Note that this option necessarily affects the underying DBAPI connection for the lifespan of the originating `Connection`, and is not per-execution. This setting is not removed until the underying DBAPI connection is returned to the connection pool, i.e. the `Connection.close()` method is called. stream_results – Available on: Connection, statement. Indicate to the dialect that results should be “streamed” and not pre-buffered, if possible. This is a limitation of many DBAPIs. The flag is currently understood only by the psycopg2 dialect.

  `in_transaction`()

    Return True if a transaction is in progress.

  `info`

    A collection of per-DB-API connection instance properties.

  `invalidate`(exception=None)

    Invalidate the underlying DBAPI connection associated with this Connection.

    The underlying DB-API connection is literally closed (if possible), and is discarded. Its source connection pool will typically lazily create a new connection to replace it.

    Upon the next usage, this Connection will attempt to reconnect to the pool with a new connection.

    Transactions in progress remain in an “opened” state (even though the actual transaction is gone); these must be explicitly rolled back before a reconnect on this Connection can proceed. This is to prevent applications from accidentally continuing their transactional operations in a non-transactional state.

  `invalidated`

    Return True if this connection was invalidated.

  `reflecttable`(table, include_columns=None)

    Load table description from the database.

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use autoload=True with `Table`, or use the `Inspector` object.

    Given a `Table` object, reflect its columns and properties from the database, populating the given `Table` object with attributes.. If include_columns (a list or set) is specified, limit the autoload to the given column names.

    The default implementation uses the `Inspector` interface to provide the output, building upon the granular table/column/ constraint etc. methods of `Dialect`.

  `run_callable`(callable_, *args, **kwargs)

    Given a callable object or function, execute it, passing a `Connection` as the first argument.

    The given *args and **kwargs are passed subsequent to the `Connection` argument.

    This function, along with `Engine.run_callable()`, allows a function to be run with a `Connection` or `Engine` object without the need to know which one is being dealt with.

  `scalar`(object, *multiparams, **params)

    Executes and returns the first column of the first row.

    The underlying result/cursor is closed after execution.

  `transaction`(callable_, *args, **kwargs)

    Execute the given function within a transaction boundary.

    The function is passed this `Connection` as the first argument, followed by the given *args and **kwargs.

    This is a shortcut for explicitly invoking `Connection.begin()`, calling `Transaction.commit()` upon success or `Transaction.rollback()` upon an exception raise:

        def do_something(conn, x, y):
            conn.execute("some statement", {'x':x, 'y':y})

        conn.transaction(do_something, 5, 10)

    Note that context managers (i.e. the `with` statement) present a more modern way of accomplishing the above, using the `Transaction` object as a base:

        with conn.begin():
            conn.execute("some statement", {'x':5, 'y':10})

    One advantage to the `Connection.transaction()` method is that the same method is also available on `Engine` as `Engine.transaction()` - this method procures a `Connection` and then performs the same operation, allowing equivalent usage with either a `Connection` or `Engine` without needing to know what kind of object it is.

class `sqlalchemy.engine.base.` `Connectable`

  Bases: `object`

  Interface for an object which supports execution of SQL constructs.

  The two implementations of `Connectable` are `Connection` and `Engine`.

  Connectable must also implement the ‘dialect’ member which references a `Dialect` instance.

  `connect`(**kwargs)

    Return a `Connection` object.

    Depending on context, this may be `self` if this object is already an instance of `Connection`, or a newly procured `Connection` if this object is an instance of `Engine`.

  `contextual_connect`()

    Return a `Connection` object which may be part of an ongoing context.

    Depending on context, this may be `self` if this object is already an instance of `Connection`, or a newly procured `Connection` if this object is an instance of `Engine`.

  `create`(entity, **kwargs)

    Emit CREATE statements for the given schema entity.

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use the create() method on the given schema object directly, i.e. `Table.create()`, `Index.create()`, `MetaData.create_all()`

  `drop`(entity, **kwargs)

    Emit DROP statements for the given schema entity.

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use the drop() method on the given schema object directly, i.e. `Table.drop()`, `Index.drop()`, `MetaData.drop_all()`

  `execute`(object, *multiparams, **params)

    Executes the given construct and returns a `ResultProxy`.

  `scalar`(object, *multiparams, **params)

    Executes and returns the first column of the first row.

    The underlying cursor is closed after execution.

class `sqlalchemy.engine.base.` `Engine`(pool, dialect, url, logging_name=None, echo=None, proxy=None, execution_options=None)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.engine.base.Connectable`, `sqlalchemy.log.Identified`

  Connects a `Pool` and `Dialect` together to provide a source of database connectivity and behavior.

  An `Engine` object is instantiated publically using the `create_engine()` function.

  `connect`(**kwargs)

    Return a new `Connection` object.

    The `Connection` object is a facade that uses a DBAPI connection internally in order to communicate with the database. This connection is procured from the connection-holding `Pool` referenced by this `Engine`. When the `close()` method of the `Connection` object is called, the underlying DBAPI connection is then returned to the connection pool, where it may be used again in a subsequent call to `connect()`.

  `contextual_connect`(close_with_result=False, **kwargs)

    Return a `Connection` object which may be part of some ongoing context.

    By default, this method does the same thing as `Engine.connect()`. Subclasses of `Engine` may override this method to provide contextual behavior.

    Parameters: | close_with_result – When True, the first `ResultProxy` created by the `Connection` will call the `Connection.close()` method of that connection as soon as any pending result rows are exhausted. This is used to supply the “connectionless execution” behavior provided by the `Engine.execute()` method.

  `create`(entity, connection=None, **kwargs)

    Emit CREATE statements for the given schema entity.

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use the create() method on the given schema object directly, i.e. `Table.create()`, `Index.create()`, `MetaData.create_all()`

  `dispose`()

    Dispose of the connection pool used by this `Engine`.

    A new connection pool is created immediately after the old one has been disposed. This new pool, like all SQLAlchemy connection pools, does not make any actual connections to the database until one is first requested.

    This method has two general use cases:

    > - When a dropped connection is detected, it is assumed that all connections held by the pool are potentially dropped, and the entire pool is replaced.
    > - An application may want to use `dispose()` within a test suite that is creating multiple engines.

    It is critical to note that `dispose()` does not guarantee that the application will release all open database connections - only those connections that are checked into the pool are closed. Connections which remain checked out or have been detached from the engine are not affected.

  `driver`

    Driver name of the `Dialect` in use by this `Engine`.

  `drop`(entity, connection=None, **kwargs)

    Emit DROP statements for the given schema entity.

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use the drop() method on the given schema object directly, i.e. `Table.drop()`, `Index.drop()`, `MetaData.drop_all()`

  `echo`

    When `True`, enable log output for this element.

    This has the effect of setting the Python logging level for the namespace of this element’s class and object reference. A value of boolean `True` indicates that the loglevel `logging.INFO` will be set for the logger, whereas the string value `debug` will set the loglevel to `logging.DEBUG`.

  `execute`(statement, *multiparams, **params)

    Executes the given construct and returns a `ResultProxy`.

    The arguments are the same as those used by `Connection.execute()`.

    Here, a `Connection` is acquired using the `contextual_connect()` method, and the statement executed with that connection. The returned `ResultProxy` is flagged such that when the `ResultProxy` is exhausted and its underlying cursor is closed, the `Connection` created here will also be closed, which allows its associated DBAPI connection resource to be returned to the connection pool.

  `func`

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use `expression.func` to create function constructs.

  `name`

    String name of the `Dialect` in use by this `Engine`.

  `raw_connection`()

    Return a “raw” DBAPI connection from the connection pool.

    The returned object is a proxied version of the DBAPI connection object used by the underlying driver in use. The object will have all the same behavior as the real DBAPI connection, except that its `close()` method will result in the connection being returned to the pool, rather than being closed for real.

    This method provides direct DBAPI connection access for special situations. In most situations, the `Connection` object should be used, which is procured using the `Engine.connect()` method.

  `reflecttable`(table, connection=None, include_columns=None)

    Load table description from the database.

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use autoload=True with `Table`, or use the `Inspector` object.

    Uses the given `Connection`, or if None produces its own `Connection`, and passes the `table` and `include_columns` arguments onto that `Connection` object’s `Connection.reflecttable()` method. The `Table` object is then populated with new attributes.

  `run_callable`(callable_, *args, **kwargs)

    Given a callable object or function, execute it, passing a `Connection` as the first argument.

    The given *args and **kwargs are passed subsequent to the `Connection` argument.

    This function, along with `Connection.run_callable()`, allows a function to be run with a `Connection` or `Engine` object without the need to know which one is being dealt with.

  `table_names`(schema=None, connection=None)

    Return a list of all table names available in the database.

    Parameters: | schema – Optional, retrieve names from a non-default schema. connection – Optional, use a specified connection. Default is the `contextual_connect` for this `Engine`.

  `text`(text, *args, **kwargs)

    Return a `text()` construct,

    Deprecated since version 0.7: Use `expression.text()` to create text constructs.

    bound to this engine.

    This is equivalent to:

        text("SELECT * FROM table", bind=engine)

  `transaction`(callable_, *args, **kwargs)

    Execute the given function within a transaction boundary.

    The function is passed a newly procured `Connection` as the first argument, followed by the given *args and **kwargs. The `Connection` is then closed (returned to the pool) when the operation is complete.

    This method can be used interchangeably with `Connection.transaction()`. See that method for more details on usage as well as a modern alternative using context managers (i.e. the `with` statement).

  `update_execution_options`(**opt)

    Update the default execution_options dictionary of this `Engine`.

    The given keys/values in **opt are added to the default execution options that will be used for all connections. The initial contents of this dictionary can be sent via the `execution_options` paramter to `create_engine()`.

    See `Connection.execution_options()` for more details on execution options.

class `sqlalchemy.engine.base.` `NestedTransaction`(connection, parent)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.engine.base.Transaction`

  Represent a ‘nested’, or SAVEPOINT transaction.

  A new `NestedTransaction` object may be procured using the `Connection.begin_nested()` method.

  The interface is the same as that of `Transaction`.

class `sqlalchemy.engine.base.` `ResultProxy`(context)

  Wraps a DB-API cursor object to provide easier access to row columns.

  Individual columns may be accessed by their integer position, case-insensitive column name, or by `schema.Column` object. e.g.:

      row = fetchone()

      col1 = row[0]    # access via integer position

      col2 = row['col2']   # access via name

      col3 = row[mytable.c.mycol] # access via Column object.

  `ResultProxy` also handles post-processing of result column data using `TypeEngine` objects, which are referenced from the originating SQL statement that produced this result set.

  `close`(_autoclose_connection=True)

    Close this ResultProxy.

    Closes the underlying DBAPI cursor corresponding to the execution.

    Note that any data cached within this ResultProxy is still available. For some types of results, this may include buffered rows.

    If this ResultProxy was generated from an implicit execution, the underlying Connection will also be closed (returns the underlying DBAPI connection to the connection pool.)

    This method is called automatically when:

    - all result rows are exhausted using the fetchXXX() methods.
    - cursor.description is None.
  `fetchall`()

    Fetch all rows, just like DB-API `cursor.fetchall()`.

  `fetchmany`(size=None)

    Fetch many rows, just like DB-API `cursor.fetchmany(size=cursor.arraysize)`.

    If rows are present, the cursor remains open after this is called. Else the cursor is automatically closed and an empty list is returned.

  `fetchone`()

    Fetch one row, just like DB-API `cursor.fetchone()`.

    If a row is present, the cursor remains open after this is called. Else the cursor is automatically closed and None is returned.

  `first`()

    Fetch the first row and then close the result set unconditionally.

    Returns None if no row is present.

  `inserted_primary_key`

    Return the primary key for the row just inserted.

    The return value is a list of scalar values corresponding to the list of primary key columns in the target table.

    This only applies to single row `insert()` constructs which did not explicitly specify `Insert.returning()`.

    Note that primary key columns which specify a server_default clause, or otherwise do not qualify as “autoincrement” columns (see the notes at `Column`), and were generated using the database-side default, will appear in this list as `None` unless the backend supports “returning” and the insert statement executed with the “implicit returning” enabled.

  `is_insert`

    True if this `ResultProxy` is the result of a executing an expression language compiled `expression.insert()` construct.

    When True, this implies that the `inserted_primary_key` attribute is accessible, assuming the statement did not include a user defined “returning” construct.

  `keys`()

    Return the current set of string keys for rows.

  `last_inserted_ids`()

    Return the primary key for the row just inserted.

    Deprecated since version 0.6: Use `ResultProxy.inserted_primary_key`

  `last_inserted_params`()

    Return the collection of inserted parameters from this execution.

  `last_updated_params`()

    Return the collection of updated parameters from this execution.

  `lastrow_has_defaults`()

    Return `lastrow_has_defaults()` from the underlying ExecutionContext.

    See ExecutionContext for details.

  `lastrowid`

    return the ‘lastrowid’ accessor on the DBAPI cursor.

    This is a DBAPI specific method and is only functional for those backends which support it, for statements where it is appropriate. It’s behavior is not consistent across backends.

    Usage of this method is normally unnecessary; the `inserted_primary_key` attribute provides a tuple of primary key values for a newly inserted row, regardless of database backend.

  `postfetch_cols`()

    Return `postfetch_cols()` from the underlying ExecutionContext.

    See ExecutionContext for details.

  `returns_rows`

    True if this `ResultProxy` returns rows.

    I.e. if it is legal to call the methods `fetchone()`, `fetchmany()` `fetchall()`.

  `rowcount`

    Return the ‘rowcount’ for this result.

    The ‘rowcount’ reports the number of rows affected by an UPDATE or DELETE statement. It has no other uses and is not intended to provide the number of rows present from a SELECT.

    Note that this row count may not be properly implemented in some dialects; this is indicated by `supports_sane_rowcount()` and `supports_sane_multi_rowcount()`. `rowcount()` also may not work at this time for a statement that uses `returning()`.

  `scalar`()

    Fetch the first column of the first row, and close the result set.

    Returns None if no row is present.

  `supports_sane_multi_rowcount`()

    Return `supports_sane_multi_rowcount` from the dialect.

  `supports_sane_rowcount`()

    Return `supports_sane_rowcount` from the dialect.

class `sqlalchemy.engine.base.` `RowProxy`(parent, row, processors, keymap)

  Proxy values from a single cursor row.

  Mostly follows “ordered dictionary” behavior, mapping result values to the string-based column name, the integer position of the result in the row, as well as Column instances which can be mapped to the original Columns that produced this result set (for results that correspond to constructed SQL expressions).

  `has_key`(key)

    Return True if this RowProxy contains the given key.

  `items`()

    Return a list of tuples, each tuple containing a key/value pair.

  `keys`()

    Return the list of keys as strings represented by this RowProxy.

class `sqlalchemy.engine.base.` `Transaction`(connection, parent)

  Bases: `object`

  Represent a database transaction in progress.

  The `Transaction` object is procured by calling the `begin()` method of `Connection`:

      from sqlalchemy import create_engine
      engine = create_engine("postgresql://scott:tiger@localhost/test")
      connection = engine.connect()
      trans = connection.begin()
      connection.execute("insert into x (a, b) values (1, 2)")
      trans.commit()

  The object provides `rollback()` and `commit()` methods in order to control transaction boundaries. It also implements a context manager interface so that the Python `with` statement can be used with the `Connection.begin()` method:

      with connection.begin():
          connection.execute("insert into x (a, b) values (1, 2)")

  The Transaction object is not threadsafe.

  See also: `Connection.begin()`, `Connection.begin_twophase()`, `Connection.begin_nested()`.

  `close`()

    Close this `Transaction`.

    If this transaction is the base transaction in a begin/commit nesting, the transaction will rollback(). Otherwise, the method returns.

    This is used to cancel a Transaction without affecting the scope of an enclosing transaction.

  `commit`()

    Commit this `Transaction`.

  `rollback`()

    Roll back this `Transaction`.

class `sqlalchemy.engine.base.` `TwoPhaseTransaction`(connection, xid)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.engine.base.Transaction`

  Represent a two-phase transaction.

  A new `TwoPhaseTransaction` object may be procured using the `Connection.begin_twophase()` method.

  The interface is the same as that of `Transaction` with the addition of the `prepare()` method.

  `prepare`()

    Prepare this `TwoPhaseTransaction`.

    After a PREPARE, the transaction can be committed.